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DOI: https://doi.org/10.46502/issn.1856-7576/2022.16.04.13
Cómo citar:
Desiatnyk, K., Novakivska, L., Pryma, V., Klochko, L., & Vdovina, O. (2022). Theoretical analysis of the problem of leadership in
professional and management activities. Revista Eduweb, 16(4), 153-165. https://doi.org/10.46502/issn.1856-7576/2022.16.04.13
Theoretical analysis of the problem of leadership in
professional and management activities
Análisis teórico del problema del liderazgo en las actividades profesionales y de
gestión
Kateryna Desiatnyk
Desiatnyk@gmail.com
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9804-2863
Lesya Ukrainka Volyn National University, Ukraine, Lutsk, Ukraine.
Lyudmyla Novakivska
Novakivska@gmail.com
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-0696
Pavlo Tychyna Uman State Pedagogical University, Uman, Ukraine.
Viktoriia Pryma
Pryma@ukr.net
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7331-9950
Kyiv National University of Trade and Economics, Kyiv, Ukraine.
Larysa Klochko
Klochko@gmail.com
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1762-5894
Sumy State Pedagogical University named after A.S. Makarenko, Sumy, Ukraine.
Olena Vdovina
Vdovina@ukr.net
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3770-125X
National Defence University of Ukraine named after Ivan Cherniakhovskyi, Kyiv, Ukraine.
Recibido: 02/11/22
Aceptado: 20/12/22
Abstract
El artículo está dedicado a los problemas actuales del concepto liderazgo. Se considera
la esencia del concepto de "liderazgo" y las teorías de liderazgo. Los autores del artículo
realizaron un análisis multifacético de las teorías de liderazgo, analizaron los factores de
su formación e identificaron su relación. También, las razones de la diferencia y conexión
entre liderazgo y liderazgo. Se presentaron estilos de liderazgo y su rol en la construcción
de un liderazgo efectivo. Para formar la base del liderazgo efectivo se comparó con los
principales criterios inherentes a estas teorías. En el trabajo se utilizaron los siguientes
métodos de investigación: teórico (análisis de documentos normativos y literatura
científica sobre el problema en estudio, comparación, generalización, modelación),
empírico (diagnóstico del nivel de formación de competencias gerenciales de los
estudiantes del sistema, cuestionamiento, observación, revisión por pares, análisis
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comparativo cualitativo y cuantitativo de los resultados del diagnóstico del nivel de
formación de competencias gerenciales).
Palabras clave: líder, tecnologías, liderazgo, sistema educativo, liderazgo,
competencias directivas.
Resumen
El artículo analiza los conceptos existentes de comunicación intercultural, considera
aproximaciones al estudio de la reflexión para determinarla como mecanismo para
incrementar la eficacia de las comunicaciones interculturales de reflexión.
La comunicación intercultural en las condiciones de la unidad informativa de la
humanidad se basa en el hecho de que, en primer lugar, el paradigma comunicativo se
está formando hoy en las condiciones de la sociedad posindustrial y de la información,
en cuyo contexto los medios de comunicación y la información y la comunicación Las
tecnologías representan el lado más importante de la civilización. El artículo presenta un
aspecto del estudio, cuya hipótesis inicial es el supuesto de que la eficacia de la
comunicación se debe a la reflexión sanagénica. El estudio teórico del problema mostró
que los siguientes aspectos del estudio de la reflexión fueron determinados en la ciencia
y la práctica. La reflexión se estudia en el aspecto de estudiar los principios de
organización y desarrollo de la psique humana, su forma más alta: el autoconocimiento.
Palabras clave: educación superior, sistema educativo, tecnología informática,
instituciones de educación superior, reflexión intercultural, comunicación, cultura,
estereotipos étnicos
1. Introduction
The words leader ("leader") and leadership ("leadership") are formed from the Anglo-
Saxon root "lead", which comes from the verb "leaden", which means "to travel ", "go".
Being navigators, the Anglo-Saxons also used this name to indicate the course of a ship
at sea. Thus, the people (or vessels) who showed the way were called leaders. At present,
in everyday language, a leader is understood as: a) a person who is more successful than
others in any activity; b) the sports team with the most wins or points; c) a ship leading a
group of ships, etc. However, the concept of "leader" in the positional understanding
presented above differs from the socio-psychological idea of leadership. The leader
athlete who crosses the finish line first has little in common with the leader of the group.
The leader-sportsman is successful, he is applauded, admired, but then he continues his
life path, and perhaps in splendid isolation. In contrast, the leader of the group is a person
who has "following" followers. Thus, in the socio-psychological understanding, leadership
is associated with a more or less organized group of people united by a common goal,
values, interests, etc.
There have also been attempts to define leadership by looking at it as a separation from
the position of official leader. An example is the classical definition, according to which a
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leader is a member of a group who is spontaneously promoted to the role of a non-formal
leader (Goudeau et al., 2021). This approach to understanding leadership is justified
when considering informal groups, but it is confusing when studying organizational
leadership. In many cases, the actual leadership behavior of a leader in an organization
is inseparable from the performance of his official functions. The formal and informal
position of the leader in the team are interconnected and influence each other (Bao,
2020). The approach in which leadership is presented as one of the management
functions seems quite fruitful. According to the supporters of this approach, four
managerial functions act as means of management: planning, organization, control and
leadership, the latter (leadership) being the leading one. If we compare this point of view
with the classical scheme: planning, organization, motivation, coordination and control,
we see that leadership takes the place of motivation and coordination. Supporters of this
approach believe that "the essence of leadership lies in the implementation of a targeted
influence on the part of the subject of activity on the performers by leading them towards
the established goal" (Kopcha et al., 2016; Subhash & Cudney, 2018).
However, this interpretation also narrows the understanding of leadership, since a leader
in various situations can act as a planner, as an organizer, and as a motivator, and as a
controller (Kirkwood & Price, 2013). Often leadership is seen as the opposite of coercion
and is presented as the ability to induce rather than force certain actions. At the same
time, instead of force and coercion, in the case of leadership, motivation and inspiration
are often considered. However, such a distinction only makes sense from the point of
view of ideal leadership. In fact, it must be recognized that an authoritarian management
style can also be effective when implemented by the leader in appropriate situations.
Each of the above models of understanding the phenomenon of leadership reveals only
one side of its nature. It can be argued that, highlighting certain aspects of leadership, the
researchers pursued various goals, for example: determining the object of observation for
empirical research in small groups; defining the form of practice; ensuring the theoretical
development of this problem, etc. As a result, a paradoxical situation has developed (Kim
et al., 2013). On the one hand, collectively developed in social science theories of
leadership seem to cover all aspects of the phenomenon of leadership, and on the other
hand, the existing disparate and heterogeneous elements of its understanding cannot be
combined into a holistic view.
In order to form, as far as possible, a systematic vision of leadership, we will single out
the general essential characteristics of this phenomenon, which will make it possible to
determine in each specific case whether we are talking about leadership or not.
1. The leader must have followers. This is the first thing that can be said with certainty.
It is the presence of followers that distinguishes leaders from non-leaders. The leader
is followed by followers loyal to him. Non-leaders don't. No one becomes a leader
before gaining followers. Followers are the element that underlies leadership and it is
its presence that gives a person the right to be considered a leader. Every leader
becomes a leader only when he gains followers. It is the followers that make the
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leader. Most leaders aspiring to leadership initially ask themselves the wrong
questions: “How do I lead?” or “What do I need to be a leader?” The right questions
are: “How can I find allies?” “What are the needs and interests of others?” “How can I
get others to follow me” (Graham, 2009; Graham, 2013)?
2. Leadership is a sphere of interaction. This thesis is derived from the first one. If leaders
need followers, then leadership is not only a problem of the leader's personality, but
rather a product of the relationship between the leader and the people following him.
In the end, the followers first of all notice the actions and deeds of the leader and, on
this basis, form his perception (Zhang et al, 2021). Therefore, leadership is best
viewed as a sphere of interaction. Leadership is not so much a personal as an
interpersonal phenomenon. It is not a strong mind that makes a leader, but the people
who follow him. Based on this, an important task of the leader is to build strong working
relationships with other people.
3. Leadership is based on authority. Authority is based on qualities that are of high value
to members of a particular group. The presence of these qualities in a leader
predetermines the loyalty of followers to his actions, commitment and trust in his
decisions, which he can make on his own without consulting the group. In this sense,
the concept of "authority" to a greater extent characterizes the leader, but not always
the leader. Authority can be possessed by an individual who is not endowed with
formal powers, but who has a high degree of significance for others. Authority has a
psychological nature and is formed on the basis of the general interest of subordinates
in the leader and their conviction in his special (at least necessary for them) abilities.
Thus, the concept of “authority” is an additional resource of a leader, although it does
not always correlate with the concept of “formal power” (Dang et al., 2016). At the
same time, official authority is not self-sufficient and stable, if it is not supported by
other components (business or moral).
4. Leadership is a cognitive construct. The concept of "leadership" is not an observable
quality, but is cognitively constructed as certain actions are associated with the idea
of leadership behavior. In other words, each person has (is formed in the course of
life) his own subjective idea that the leader is an individual who has certain qualities
and behaves in a certain way. And when meeting with another person who
corresponds to the idea of a leader, the label of leadership is hung on him. At the
same time, it is expected that the presence of proven leadership qualities will be
further manifested in the corresponding leadership behavior. And vice versa: the
revealed leadership behavior is transformed into the expectation that the model of
such behavior has the appropriate leadership qualities (Graham, 2018). From this
follows the conclusion that in order to successfully become a leader in a particular
social group, he needs to study the qualities that members of this group perceive as
leaders, and the factors that they consider when they attribute certain results to
leadership. It should be noted that that the identified general characteristics of
leadership are not comprehensive and only clarify its socio-psychological essence.
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2. Literature review
Analysis of recent research and publications shows that among foreign researchers, the
problem of leadership in children: Graham, Dang, Zhang. Theories of leadership
researched: "situational theory of leadership" (Smith, Hill et al.).
Among domestic scientists who studied leadership: De Wever, Asarta, Schmidt,
Ożadowicz et al. However, despite the fact that the theoretical foundations of states have
repeatedly been the subject of research in science works of domestic and foreign
researchers, systems of scientific studies of leadership as a management phenomenon
the group has not yet conducted.
3. Aims
The Aim of the article is to clarify the features of the provision leadership in the group in
order to achieve common goals (Smith & Hill, 2019; Hrastinski, 2019).
Based on the goal, the following tasks were solved in the article:
− find out the main differences between leadership and management;
− to generalize the essence of theories of directed leadership to research the processes
of organizing a social group and its management, which contributes to the
achievement of the group goal in the optimal time and with the optimal effect;
− outline the set of elements that provide leadership in the group.
4. Materials and methods
Research methods: theoretical: study and analysis of pedagogical, psychological,
philosophical, sociological literature on the problem of research, legislative and regulatory
documents; systematization, classification, terminological analysis, pedagogical
modeling, retrospective analysis, generalization of existing pedagogical experience;
empirical: pedagogical experiment; diagnostic methods (testing, conversation,
observation, questioning, self-assessment, self-analysis, mutual assessment),
professional activity motivation methodology, pedagogical interpretation of the research
results.
5. Results
The head is a person who is entrusted with the functions of making decisions on the
activities of the company, managing the team, ensuring the effective work of the
company's employees. In general, the management process can be represented as a set
of interrelated sequential functions discussed in the previous paragraph: goal setting,
planning, motivation, organization, control, and a number of others (Tirziu & Vrabie, 2015;
Thai, De Wever & Valcke, 2017; Asarta & Schmidt, 2020; Ożadowicz, 2020). The leader,
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of course, must improve his knowledge and skills in this matter, master the techniques
and methods that allow him to perform his functions most effectively. But as practice
shows, it is really possible to influence people to achieve organizational goals by using
the status of a leader. Leadership is the kind of activity that runs through the entire
management process as a thread and allows you to effectively perform all the functions
of a leader.
The topic of leadership is relevant today in many areas of life, but it got its start a long
time ago. Leadership is defined as a type of managerial interaction (between a leader
and his follower), based on the most effective combination of various sources of power
for a given situation, aimed at encouraging people to achieve common goals. Another
definition, leadership is a process of predominantly non-coercive influence in the direction
of achieving a group or organization of its goals. Leadership is predominantly built on a
leader-follower relationship rather than a boss-subordinate relationship. Thus, leadership
can be considered as the quality of a leader, characterizing the degree of influence and
impact on the team to achieve the overall goals of the organization Hrastinski (2019).
Depending on the degree of this influence, the leader can be a leader to a greater or
lesser extent, which gives rise to the concepts of formal and informal leadership.
The formal leader exercises influence by the power of the position, that is, he has the
status of a leader officially. The promotion of a person to formal leadership can be caused
by many different circumstances, and such a leader may not have the necessary
professional, organizational and personal characteristics. The informal leader is "elected"
by the team because of his personal qualities, which allow him to organize his followers,
to convince, to inspire confidence. An informal leader, in most cases, arises in any
organization of people. In the case when there is an informal leader in the team, the formal
leader, i.e. leader, it is necessary not to compete with him, but to take into account this
situation and use the influence of the informal leader on the team in their own interests.
A rather infrequent, but positive situation can be considered the situation of combining a
formal and informal leader in one person. In this case, the actual question is whether only
innate leaders can be effective leaders, or whether this quality can be developed and
nurtured in oneself. For the answer, let's turn to research on the study of leadership.
In literary sources, there are three main approaches to the problem of leadership:
personal, behavioral, situational.
The founders of the personal approach undertook the study of leadership in a systematic
manner in the 1930s-50s. These studies were based on the theory that the best leaders
have a certain set of qualities that are common to all, fairly stable. As a result of numerous
studies, a single set of characteristics that distinguish a leader has not been found. In
different situations, the set of personal qualities was different, which is an argument in
favor of the situational approach, which will be discussed below. One of the adherents of
this approach were Ralph Stogdill and Richard Mann. They tried to group the leadership
qualities identified earlier by other researchers of this approach (Raven & Park, 2015).
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So, Stogdill came to the conclusion that basically five qualities characterize a leader: mind
or intellectual abilities; dominance or dominance over others; self-confidence; activity and
vigor; business knowledge.
In the course of long research, Stogdill became convinced that the presence of these five
qualities in a person does not guarantee him a leadership position in a team. The same
fate befell Mann.
An interesting result is obtained by the famous American consultant Warren Bennis, who
studied 90 successful leaders, as a result of which he identified 4 groups of leadership
qualities:
control of attention, or the ability to present the essence of the result or outcome, goal or
direction of movement (action) in such a way that it is attractive to followers;
management of meaning, or the ability to convey the meaning of the created image, idea
or vision in such a way that it is understood and accepted by followers;
trust management, or the ability to build one's activities with such constancy and
consistency as to gain the full confidence of subordinates;
self-management, or the ability to know and recognize one's strengths and weaknesses
so well and in time that one can skillfully attract other resources, including the resources
of other people, to strengthen one's weaknesses.
Subsequent research led to the emergence of other four groups of leadership qualities,
such as: physiological, psychological (emotional), mental (intellectual) and personal
business.
Physiological qualities include such qualities of a person as weight, height, figure, state
of health, energy, activity, representative appearance, etc. However, history shows that
there is no direct link between having these qualities and leadership. On the contrary, the
examples of Zelensky, Napoleon and others confirm that physiological qualities do not
affect the influence of individuals and physically insufficiently large people can become
clear leaders.
Psychological (emotional) qualities are manifested in practice mainly through the
character of a person. The study of the relationship between such qualities and leadership
has led to a fairly long and unlimited list of these qualities. The study of mental
(intellectual) qualities showed that the level of these qualities in leaders is higher than in
non-leaders. However, subsequent studies have not shown a direct relationship between
intellectual qualities and leadership. Personal business qualities to a greater extent are
acquired with experience, in the course of performing their work duties and functions.
Their significance for a leader is undeniable, but there is no evidence that their presence
ensures the position of an effective leader.
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Thus, the personal approach to leadership theory suffers from a number of shortcomings
and is of little use in practice, but it served as an impetus for the emergence of new
approaches to the issue of leadership. After the disappointment in the approach to
leadership from the position of personal qualities, the attention of scientists was turned to
the behavior of the leader. It has been suggested that an effective manager has a set of
patterns of habitual behavior towards his subordinates. This version became the basis of
the behavioral approach to the study of leadership. This approach has become the basis
for the emergence of leadership styles.
Leadership style reflects:
• the degree of delegation of authority by the manager to his subordinates;
• the type of power used;
• methods of working with the external environment;
• ways of influencing the staff;
• habitual manner of behavior of the head in relation to subordinates.
Major leadership theories distinguish between two possible behaviors of a leader:
1. behavior oriented towards human relations (respect for the needs of employees,
concern for the development of personnel);
2. behavior focused on the performance of production tasks at any cost (ignoring the
needs and interests of subordinates, underestimating the need for personnel
development).
The classification of leadership styles, which is used to this day, was proposed by
K. Levin. He identified three styles of leadership: authoritarian, democratic, and liberal.
The authoritarian style involves the concentration of all power and responsibility in the
hands of the leader, the use of threats and psychological impact on subordinates. Liberal,
on the contrary, is the removal of responsibility by the leader from himself, self-removal
in favor of the group, providing the team with the possibility of self-government. The
democratic style is a kind of optimal combination of the previous two styles and is
expressed in the delegation of authority to subordinates while maintaining key positions
with the leader.
Of interest is the theory of "X" and "Y" D. McGregor, who himself was an effective leader
and enjoyed the respect and trust of his subordinates. He deeply believed that people are
by nature enterprising, responsible and moral. In support of this, he wrote a book that
changed the idea of management theory, based at that time on the idea that people are
lazy and need to be forced and coerced.
Theory X is based on three main assumptions:
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1. People don't want to work. Man has an innate aversion to work and tries to avoid it.
Production quotas, target milestones, and time clocks are managers' responses to
people's natural tendency to shirk.
2. Coercion is inevitable. The company will not achieve its goals without coercion and
intimidation of its employees. Their only incentive to work is punishment, not reward.
Promotions, bonuses and benefits only increase the demands of a person, and do not
arouse the desire to work hard.
People try to avoid responsibility. All they want from life is a quiet job with a regular salary.
Theory "Y" comes from the following postulates:
1. People don't have an innate dislike for work. Under certain conditions, employees
enjoy what they do.
2. Employees don't have to be kept at bay. Properly motivated employees will work
without prodding and make active efforts to meet the challenges facing the company.
The feeling of success gives people pleasure. The successes achieved build self-
confidence, and as a result, employees are even more eager to achieve their goals.
People want to do responsible work. It is not true that man is by nature lazy and
irresponsible. In fact, he, on the contrary, is looking for any opportunity to do responsible
work.
Human beings are naturally endowed with the ability to be creative. Most people are
capable of creative problem solving.
People are smart and smart. Leaders often greatly underestimate the intellectual abilities
of their subordinates.
Thus, theory "X" states that the internal policy of the company should be determined by
its management, about nothing, without consulting with the staff. According to Theory Y,
management should take into account both the needs of the company as a whole and the
needs of its employees, who, in turn, would like to benefit their organization. Employees
who know they can rely on their bosses, believe in their own abilities and are ready to
work with high efficiency.
Using the "leadership grid", a manager can determine not only his own leadership style,
but also analyze the styles followed by his colleagues, partners, competitors.
Neither personality nor behavioral approaches have been able to identify a clear
relationship between the personal qualities or behavior of the leader and the effectiveness
of his work. Subsequent studies have shown that the presence of certain qualities and
behaviors certainly play a role in the formation of a leader, but only if there are additional
factors. These factors include the impact of the environment, the availability of the
necessary information, the personal qualities of subordinates, etc. Therefore, modern
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leadership theory has drawn attention to the situational approach. In accordance with this
approach, the leader-leader must be able to apply different leadership styles and
qualitative characteristics, depending on the situation.
The main factors are:
1. Relations between the leader and team members. They imply the loyalty shown by
subordinates, their trust in their leader and the attractiveness of the leader's
personality for performers.
2. The structure of the task. It implies the familiarity of the task, the clarity of its
formulation and its structuring, and not vagueness and lack of structure.
3. Official powers. This is the amount of legal power associated with the position of the
head, which allows him to use remuneration, as well as the level of support that the
formal organization provides to the head.
The theory establishes four leadership styles corresponding to the level of maturity of the
staff:
• high task orientation and low people orientation (to give directions);
• equally high orientation to the task and people (to sell);
• low task orientation and high people orientation (participate);
• Equally low task and people orientation (to delegate).
This theory states that an effective leadership style should always be different depending
on the maturity of the performers and the nature of the managerial situation.
6. Discussion
To summarize, all approaches to the problem of leadership are a combination of three
main variables:
• leadership skills;
• leadership behavior;
• the situation in which the leader operates.
Moreover, modern research and approaches prove that for effective leadership it is
necessary to take into account all three components. That is, the leader, of course, must
have a set of certain qualities, have the skills of different types of behavior (employee
orientation, task orientation (production) and their various combinations), and apply
certain qualities, as well as a style of behavior depending on the prevailing environment.
his situation. In addition, none of the concepts discussed above argue that leadership
qualities are innate. On the contrary, they confirm that leadership behavior and leadership
qualities can be developed and improved through education and training.
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After analyzing the literature on this issue, two basic groups of leadership qualities were
identified, the presence of which will allow an individual to prove himself as a leader in a
team: personal leadership qualities (self-leadership); communication and organizational
leadership qualities. In the future, the set of these qualities can and should be replenished
and expanded.
The first group of "personal leadership qualities" includes:
• Self-confidence. Self-confidence, a high but adequate level of self-esteem will allow
the leader to be decisive where necessary, take risks, and make bold decisions.
Undoubtedly, this confidence should be based on a high level of professional and
universal competencies, a wide range of knowledge and skills in the field of their
professional activity.
• Active life position. This quality allows the leader to always be in the center of events,
to have the necessary information in a timely manner, to be enterprising, to take risks.
• Reliability. The leader is the bearer of the norms and values of the whole association
of followers. Therefore, the leader must be reliable, which includes honesty, justice in
his actions, responsibility for his decisions and actions.
• Self-development. It is impossible to be an example for others, remaining in place.
The leader must constantly maintain a situation of "intellectual superiority" over his
followers.
• Creative approach (creativity). The leader seeks to improve the effectiveness of
decisions through the use of new, creative approaches.
The second group "communicative and organizational leadership qualities" includes:
• Sociability. This quality makes it easy to establish contacts with different people, to be
confident in communication, to find an approach to each individual to achieve their
goals.
• Ability to influence others. This quality includes the ability to convince, motivate,
inspire and is indispensable for a leader.
• Vision. A true leader knows how to anticipate, assess the situation, look to the future
and clearly formulate a goal in order to lead the team towards this goal. Also, the
leader feels and evaluates the potential of each employee, sets tasks for him
commensurate with his capabilities, understands the effectiveness and potential of
collective work.
• Flexibility. The leader needs to feel the situation and choose a line of behavior that is
adequate to it, as well as make only one right decision in a timely manner, be flexible
in communicating with different people.
All these qualities are not innate, they can and must be brought up in the learning process.
Moreover, you need to start with yourself and, first of all, learn to lead yourself: set goals
for yourself, motivate yourself to achieve them, and be responsible for the result. Further,
learn to take the initiative in some specific situations, inspire the trust of the team,
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convince and move together towards the intended goal. The next step should be the
formation of a team of followers, effective management of a team of employees and
continuous improvement of leadership skills: the ability to speak, persuade, set goals,
coordinate the actions of employees and others. All this will allow the leader to become
the undisputed leader in the team.
7. Conclusions
To ensure the effectiveness of the process of forming managerial competencies, it is
necessary to comply with the following organizational and pedagogical conditions:
1. Identification and development of leadership qualities of students in a student-
centered approach, which will allow them to show the position of the subject of
management activity;
2. The use of a communicative-activity approach based on interactive teaching methods,
involving business and role-playing games, solving situational problems, discussions,
debates and other forms that will allow the future specialist to demonstrate his
managerial competence in the learning process;
3. Orientation of teachers to new professional roles (accompanying and advising
students), which contributes to a more effective organization of students' independent
activities;
4. Providing operational diagnostics and evaluation of the effectiveness of the process
of formation of managerial competencies.
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